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Space rockets

Last updated: April 23, 2006.

Photo of an early Atlas rocket in 1963 by NASA

Conquering space was probably the greatest technological achievement of the 20th century. Space rockets put men on the Moon, launched satellites that sent back dramatic pictures of Earth, and gave people an understanding of the Universe they could never have gained from telescopes trained on the sky. Since Sputnik, the first satellite, was launched into space in 1957, several thousand successful space missions have now been flown.

Photo: An early Atlas rocket photographed in 1963. Picture courtesy of Great Images in NASA.

History of rockets

The first rockets were firework missiles used by the Chinese in 1232 C.E. to defend the city of Kaifeng against a Mongolian invasion. Space rockets owe just as much to US physicist Robert Hutchings Goddard (1882-1945), "the father of modern rocketry," who pioneered many rocket science techniques during the early 20th century. German scientists also played an important role, notably with a rocket-propelled missile called the V-2, which was used to devastating effect in World War II. Intense rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union saw the Russians putting Sputnik into space in 1957, but American astronauts were the first to land on the Moon in 1969, propelled by a Saturn-V rocket. Today, rockets are still the cheapest way of putting satellites into space. Over half of all commercial satellites are now launched from French Guiana by the European Ariane rocket.

How rockets work

Like jet airplanes, space rockets work on a principle called "action and reaction." The massive force (action) generated by hot gases firing backward from a rocket's engines produces an equal force (reaction) that pushes the rocket forward through space. Most of the fuel on-board a rocket is used in the first few minutes of the mission to achieve an "escape velocity" of at least 25,000 mph (40,000 km/h)—the speed a rocket must attain to escape Earth's gravity.

Blast off

One of the most successful space rockets ever developed is the Atlas Centaur produced by the Lockheed Martin company. Atlas rockets have launched around 100 unmanned space missions, including voyages to the Moon, the Pioneer missions that flew past Jupiter and Venus, and the Voyager space probe that landed on Mars. NASA's first Atlas rocket took off from Cape Canaveral, Florida, on June 11, 1957. The latest version, Atlas V, will be used from late 2001 as a launch vehicle for government and commercial satellites.

Atlas rocket

In an Atlas Centaur rocket, a lower stage (a section of the rocket used for part of the flight) called Atlas is joined to an upper stage called Centaur. The rocket's payload (cargo), typically a spacecraft or satellite, rides on top of the Centaur stage and is protected from heat and vibration by a nose cone called the payload fairing.

Launching a satellite

The Atlas and Centaur stages power the rocket through different points of its mission. The massive Atlas stage helps the rocket escape Earth's gravity and pushes it into orbit. Later, the smaller Centaur stage puts the payload satellite into orbit before separating and returning to Earth.

  1. Liftoff: The Atlas stage powers the rocket with a two-chamber booster engine (operational during liftoff only), a sustainer engine (operational from liftoff until all fuel is exhausted), and four solid rocket boosters (SRBs). The Atlas stage contains 343,000 lbs (156,000 kg) of liquid fuel.
  2. SRBs jettisoned: The solid rocket boosters are used to increase thrust during the first two minutes of the flight and are jettisoned when their fuel supply is exhausted.
  3. Booster engine jettisoned: The booster engine cuts off and is jettisoned by releasing 10 pneumatic (air-operated) latches.
  4. Payload fairing jettisoned: Spring-operated thrusters jettison the protective payload faring once the rocket has cleared Earth's atmosphere.
  5. Atlas and Centaur separate: As the rocket near its orbit, the Atlas and Centaur stages separate and the Atlas stage is jettisoned.
  6. Centaur moves into orbit: Centaur's twin engines give it the precise altitude and velocity it needs to launch the satellite.
  7. Satellite is launched: Centaur separates from the satellite. The satellite continues in orbit, while Centaur positions itself for a return to Earth.

Rocket engines

Like the gunpowder missiles of ancient China, solid-fuel rocket engines are little more than giant fireworks. Although they are very powerful, they cannot be switched off or controlled in any way, so they are typically used only during liftoff.

Liquid-fuel engines pump liquid hydrogen fuel and liquid oxygen gas into a combustion chamber, burn the mixture, and allow the hot exhaust to escape through a jet nozzle to produce thrust. The oxygen ensures the hydrogen burns at a very high temperature. However, before combustion, both substances are stored at extremely low temperatures to keep them liquid. This ensures more fuel can be stored than if gases were used. The low temperature also cools the nozzle to protect it from the heat generated during liftoff. Unlike solid-fuel engines, liquid-fuel engines can be switched on and off during flight.

Copyright © Chris Woodford 2000.

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